The term "cult" is pervasive in modern discourse, often evoking images of fringe religious groups or charismatic leaders. However, the word's etymology and its journey through history reveal a nuanced evolution in both meaning and societal attitudes. This blog post explores the transformation of the term "cult" from Roman times through the mediaeval period, the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, the Age of Enlightenment, the Victorian era, and into contemporary usage, drawing on academic sources to provide a comprehensive overview.
Roman Times
The origin of the word "cult" can be traced back to the Latin word "cultus," which means "care," "adoration," or "worship." In ancient Rome, "cultus" referred to the care owed to deities, which encompassed rituals, sacrifices, and religious ceremonies. It did not carry the negative connotations it does today; instead, it was a neutral term denoting religious practice and devotion.
The term was part of the broader Roman religious vocabulary that also included words like "religio" and "superstitio." While "religio" referred to the proper, state-sanctioned worship of gods, "superstitio" described excessive or improper worship. "Cultus," therefore, occupied a respectable middle ground, underscoring the societal importance of maintaining piety and proper religious conduct. Roman religious life was highly ritualistic, and "cultus" encompassed the daily and seasonal rituals that maintained the pax deorum, or peace with the gods, which was essential for the well-being of the state and its people.
religio: state-sanctioned worship of gods
superstitio: excessive or improper worship
cultus: respectable groups in between "religio" and "superstitio"
cultus: veneration of emperors, the Imperial Cult
Roman "cultus" also extended to the veneration of emperors, known as the imperial cult. This practice was a means of consolidating political power and fostering unity across the empire. The imperial cult highlighted the intersection of religion and politics in Roman society, where loyalty to the emperor was both a civic and religious duty. The reverence for emperors and other deified figures further emphasised the role of "cultus" in promoting social cohesion and political stability.
Mediaeval Period
During the mediaeval period, the term "cult" retained its religious significance, primarily in the context of the veneration of saints. The "cult of saints" was a widespread phenomenon, involving the reverence and worship of saints through rituals, relics, and pilgrimages. The term still did not imply any deviance or danger but rather was integral to the Christian religious fabric. The veneration of saints served various social and religious functions, providing a means for communities to express their faith, seek divine intercession, and establish local identities through association with particular saints. The legitimacy of these practices was supported by the Church, which promoted the veneration of saints as a way to reinforce orthodoxy and communal religious life.
Saints were often regarded as intermediaries between the divine and human realms, capable of performing miracles and providing protection. Relics of saints, believed to possess spiritual power, became central to mediaeval worship, attracting pilgrims and fostering economic activity in regions housing significant relics. This period also saw the rise of religious orders and monastic communities dedicated to particular saints, further embedding the "cult of saints" into the fabric of mediaeval life.
Mediaeval Cult of Saints: respected veneration
The mediaeval period also saw the formalisation of professional guilds—regulatory groups for trades such as bakers, blacksmiths, bankers, carpenters, merchants, and artisans. Most towns had regulations requiring workers to join a guild to practise their trade, and each guild was often associated with a patron saint. Whether these groups can be considered cults depends on how the term is defined and applied.
Essentially, the veneration of saints helped to establish and reinforce social hierarchies, as noble families often sought to associate themselves with powerful saints to legitimise their rule. This dynamic underscores how the "cult of saints" functioned both as a religious and a socio-political phenomenon during the mediaeval period, integrating faith with daily life and governance.
Renaissance
The Renaissance period saw the continuation of the religious use of "cult," especially as the veneration of saints and religious figures persisted. However, this era's burgeoning humanism and the Protestant Reformation began to challenge the established religious practices, subtly shifting the perception of certain "cults" as superstitious or excessive. The Reformation, in particular, criticised what it saw as the idolatrous practices associated with the veneration of saints, relics, and images, branding them as remnants of mediaeval superstition. This period marked the beginning of a more critical stance towards certain religious practices, setting the stage for the later negative connotations of the term "cult."
Humanist scholars of the Renaissance, such as Erasmus, advocated for a return to the original sources of Christianity, promoting a more personal and direct relationship with God that often bypassed the elaborate rituals associated with the "cult of saints." The printing press facilitated the spread of Reformation ideas, enabling critiques of church practices to reach a wide audience and further erode the traditional authority of established religious institutions.
Renaissance Cult of Saints: diversification of religions that lead to the veneration of saints declared inappropriate by some people
The Reformation also led to the fragmentation of Christianity into multiple denominations, each with its own interpretations and practices. This diversification of religious expression heightened the scrutiny of groups perceived as deviating from the new norms of Protestant orthodoxy. Consequently, the term "cult" began to carry implications of heresy and deviance, reflecting the growing tensions and conflicts within Christianity.
Some people, both past and present, consider the Holy Roman Catholic Church to be a large cult that sought to control others through coercive means. For example, it banned certain books (Index Librorum Prohibitorum) and placed scientists like Galileo Galilei under house arrest for challenging the Church’s authority. The “us versus them” mentality was prevalent among many fracturing groups, leading to derogatory name calling.
Scientific Revolution
With the Scientific Revolution, the term "cult" began to subtly shift as scientific inquiry and rationalism started to critique and question traditional religious practices. Cults, in this context, began to be seen as remnants of an irrational past, though the term was not widely used in a derogatory sense yet. The growing emphasis on empirical evidence and rational thought fostered a sceptical attitude towards practices that could not be scientifically validated. This period also saw the emergence of new scientific societies and intellectual movements that, while not described as "cults," exhibited some characteristics of dedicated and exclusive groups centred around shared beliefs and goals.
Scientific Revolution: "cult" began to become derogatory and associated with irrational beliefs
Prominent figures like René Descartes and Isaac Newton embodied the spirit of the Scientific Revolution, challenging traditional views and advocating for a new understanding of the natural world based on observation and experimentation. This intellectual shift also influenced religious thought, leading to the rise of deism, which emphasised a rational and natural religion free from the perceived superstitions of traditional faiths.
The scientific method's emphasis on repeatability and observable phenomena stood in stark contrast to the mystical and miraculous elements of religious "cults." As science progressed, the gap between rational inquiry and religious belief widened, with "cults" increasingly seen as relics of a less enlightened era. This period laid the groundwork for the later secular critique of religious movements that did not align with the principles of reason and empirical evidence.
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment furthered the critical perspective on religious practices that deviated from reason and rationality. "Cult" started to be used more pejoratively, indicating a group with irrational beliefs or excessive devotion that stood in opposition to the Enlightenment ideals of reason and logic. Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Diderot often criticised organised religion and superstitious practices, advocating for a more secular and rational approach to understanding the world. This intellectual climate contributed to the growing suspicion and marginalisation of groups perceived as irrational or fanatical, laying the groundwork for the modern understanding of "cults."
Age Enlightenment: cults viewed as irrational and excessive devotion
Enlightenment philosophers championed individual freedom, secular governance, and scientific progress, often viewing traditional religious institutions as obstacles to these goals. Their critiques extended to any group or movement that seemed to resist rational inquiry or promote unquestioning devotion. This period also saw the rise of secret societies like the Freemasons, which, despite their Enlightenment principles, were sometimes labelled as "cults" by their detractors due to their secretive nature and distinct rituals.
The Enlightenment's emphasis on universal human rights and equality also led to increased scrutiny of religious practices that appeared to undermine these ideals. Movements or sects that demanded absolute loyalty or promoted hierarchical structures were often viewed with suspicion and labelled as "cults," reflecting a growing concern with preserving individual autonomy and rational thought.
Victorian Era
In the Victorian era, the term "cult" began to take on more of its modern connotations. The period's fascination with spiritualism, the occult, and unorthodox religious movements led to a growing suspicion and sensationalism around groups deemed to be cults. These groups were often portrayed as deviant and a threat to societal norms. The Victorian era was marked by a complex interplay between scientific progress, religious revivalism, and an interest in the mystical and supernatural. This context led to heightened scrutiny of groups that deviated from mainstream religious practices, with "cult" increasingly used to describe these marginalised and often sensationalised movements.
The rise of spiritualism and the occult during the Victorian period, exemplified by figures such as Helena Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society, captivated the public imagination but also sparked concern among authorities and traditional religious leaders. These movements were often seen as challenging the established social order and promoting beliefs that were at odds with mainstream Christianity.
Victorian Era: cults were any group that challenged the established social order and were at odds with mainstream Christianity
Literature and media of the time also played a significant role in shaping public perceptions of "cults." Sensationalist accounts of secretive and exotic religious practices, often depicted in novels and newspapers, fuelled the public's fascination and fear. This era's portrayal of cults laid the groundwork for the 20th century's more dramatic and often negative representations of these groups.
Modern Era
Today, the word "cult" is commonly associated with groups that are considered extreme or dangerous, often characterised by authoritarian leadership, manipulative practices, and deviant beliefs. The term is used both in popular culture and academic discourse to describe a wide range of groups, from small religious sects to large, organised movements. The shift in meaning reflects broader societal changes and anxieties about religious and ideological conformity. Modern media and literature have played significant roles in shaping public perception of cults, often focusing on dramatic and sensational aspects. Academic studies have also expanded to examine the psychological and sociological dynamics within cults, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of their appeal and impact.
Modern Era: "cult" is usually used to describe a group that is extreme or dangerous
High-profile cases like the Jonestown massacre in 1978 and the Branch Davidian siege in 1993 have cemented the association of cults with danger and extremism in the public mind. These incidents highlighted the potential for manipulation and abuse.
Re-Evaluating the Meaning of "Cult" in Contemporary Usage
The past, particularly the ancient past, is filled with examples of groups that would be considered harmful by today's ethical standards. For instance, priests in the cult of Cybele were required to castrate themselves, a practice also followed by some early Christian priests like Origen. The abuse within these past religious groups went unrecognised due to a lack of understanding of coercive control, similar to how slavery was once tolerated. As society has collectively challenged and condemned certain cultish behaviours, the term "cult" has rightly gained a negative connotation.
However, it’s important to recognise that the term "cult" is still used in a benign sense in some contexts, much like it was in ancient Roman times. To navigate this nuanced usage, consider the following guidelines:
Recognising cults with a little "c" and Cults with a big "C"
The term “cult” has become a catch-all phrase in contemporary speech, often used casually to describe any group with a passionate following or shared interest. We talk about the “cult” of fitness enthusiasts, the “cult” of a particular TV show, or the “cult” of a beloved book series. These groups, bound by a common interest, are generally harmless and can be seen as cults with a little “c”—communities that provide a sense of belonging without the dark undertones.
On the other hand, when we think of cults in the more sinister sense—those with manipulative leaders, exploitative practices, and a penchant for controlling every aspect of their members’ lives—we’re talking about cults with a big “C.” These are the dangerous groups led by authoritative figures who use coercion, deceit, and isolation to dominate their followers. The confusion between these two usages can obscure the real dangers posed by destructive cults. By distinguishing between cults with a little “c” and those with a big “C”, we can better understand the spectrum of group behaviour and identify when a seemingly benign community crosses the line into harmful territory.
Understanding Coercive Control
Instead of merely viewing cults as groups that fall outside of standardised religions, they are better viewed as groups that monopolise on extreme interpretations of an ideology to inflict human rights abuses. This perspective helps to separate belief and faith from coercion and control.
Moreover, a clear understanding of what constitutes coercive control is needed in order to make a judgment about whether a group is cult with a little "c" or big "C". This is where having a robust "how to spot a cult" system comes into play. By using a set of criteria designed to measure the degree of coercive control present in any group, such as Renee's Cult Ranking, groups can be recognised as being either a playful, harmless cult with a little “c,” or a more dangerous, controlling cult with a big “C.” This system scores groups based on factors like authoritative leadership, control over information, and fear-based tactics, making it easier to spot red flags before it's too late. By applying these criteria, we can better navigate the murky waters of group dynamics and safeguard ourselves and others from the destructive grip of coercive control.
Further Reading
1. Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Price. Religions of Rome: Volume 1: A History. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
2. Geary, Patrick J. Furta Sacra: Thefts of Relics in the Central Middle Ages. Princeton University Press, 1990.
3. Duffy, Eamon. The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, 1400-1580. Yale University Press, 1992.
4. Henry, John. The Scientific Revolution and the Origins of Modern Science. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
5. Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
6. Owen, Alex. The Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Modern. University of Chicago Press, 2004.
7. Lalich, Janja, and Michael D. Langone. Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse. W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.
8. Bromley, David G., and J. Gordon Melton. Cults, Religion, and Violence. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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